The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon

Near the end of the 18th century, the French government fell under new control. A new government known as “the Directory” came to power in the executive branch. The directory directed a war effort, which brought power to Napoleon Bonaparte, who saw the fall of the French republic. He would eventually become the supreme ruler of France and one of the greatest military leaders in history. Napoleon’s influences lead to a new type of government, The French Consulate, in which Napoleon became the first consul. However, his coming to power was assisted by the Revolution in Colonies, lead by Toussaint L’Ouverture. Napoleon rose to power and initiated the downfall of the French republic and replaced it with The French Consulate, which began Napoleons reign over France. His rise to power began with the Directory.

In the late 18th century, the republic endured in France under a new government known as the Directory. This executive branch kept power only by fending off challenges from the remaining royalists in Paris.[1] This period of regime constituted the second to last stage of the French Revolution. Meanwhile, it directed a war effort that would ultimately bring to power Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the most influential figures in European history. Napoleon scored major victories with a modernized French army and drew his tactics from different sources. His campaigns were studied and respected all over the world, and thus was regarded as one of history's great commanders. Napoleon centralized state power more effectively than kings of revolutionaries before him.[2] He also worked hard to establish his reputation as an efficient administrator with broad intellectual interests. Furthermore, Napoleon aimed to modernize French society through science and brute force.[3] This use of aggressiveness is shown with Napoleon’s prominent invasion of Poland and Germany. He not only assumed control of Polish lands, but in assimilating Polish youth and making them unaware of their rich heritage, destroyed Polish nationalism. Thus Napoleon raised “The Polish Question” among the Poles. Apart from this, the French Revolution also impacted Napoleon’s rise to power.
France was a country that depended heavily on the well-being of its colonies. The country’s success was due in part to the amount of slave laborers that worked their fields/.However, the course of the revolution brought about repercussions in France’s Caribbean colonies, which had a direct correlation to France’s economy. Some French citizens attempted to abolish such use of slaves with the organization of a club known as the Friends of Blacks. Unfortunately, the majority of French Revolutionaries did not view the issue as a problem. To their surprise, slaves in St. Dominique led an uprising which caused the Legislative assembly in Paris to resort to unpr
ecedented actions.[4] They granted free people of color civil and political rights. As a result enraged white planters and merchants joined sides with France’s enemy, Great Britain. Additionally, Great Britain’s ally, Spain, offered freedom to a select group of slave rebels. The French commissioner, now in a dire situation, freed all slaves as a means of recruiting more men into the French army. This hasty act caused the overall abolishment of slavery in the French colonies. To France’s advantage one of their ablest black generals, Francois-Dominique Touissant L’Ouverture allied with and changed the sides of his Spanish troops to the French. Touissant was honored and awarded as he was appointed governor of St. Dominique. Touissant was able to remain in charge until, Napoleon’s arrival in 1802. Although, he was arrested and died in prison, Touissant was revered as a hero to abolitionist everywhere.

The Directory regime faced a deeply divided populace at home while continuing to fight abroad. Constant elections meant constant upheaval. It never succeeded in establishing a farm center that could appeal to a majority of voters. All over France, people banded together and petitioned to reopen churches closed during the Terror.[5] Amid increasing political instability, generals in the field became independent, and the troops felt greater loyalty to their units and generals than to the republic. On November 9, 1799, the conspirators within the Directory government persuaded the legislature to move out of Paris to avoid revolt. When Bonaparte demanded changes in the Constitution, he was denied by cries of “Down with the dictator.” The soldiers ejected the deputies, and assembled a legislature voted to abolish the Directory and establish a new three-man executive called the consultate. The deputies picked Bonaparte as one of the three provisional consuls because he was such a famous general. Under the new Constitution of 1799 he was named First Consul, a title revived from ancient Roman republic, with the right to pick the Council of State, which drew up all laws. Bonaparte and his advisers chose the legislature’s members out of a small pool of “notables.”[6] Within a year, Bonaparte had effectively ended the French Revolution and set France on a new course toward a new, independent state.

Napoleon’s rise to power brought many changes to France. A new government was formed, known as the Directory, which controlled the executive branch. This lead to other reforms in the French government, for Napoleon incorporated a new form of power that ended the Republic. Napoleon established French Consulate, in which he became the First Consul. However, he was only able to ascend his power due to multiple revolutions against the previous government. Napoleon created a new French establishment that helped France become one of the most powerful countries in Europe.

Questions...

1. What helped Napoleon come into power?

2. What was the significance of the Polish Question?

3. What factors contributed to the fall of the Republic?

Noah Joachim, Oladeji Odewade, Will Huff

[1] Packet
[2] "Napoleon Bonaparte." Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. 09 Feb. 2009 .
[3] Packet
[4] "Napoleon Bonaparte." Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. 09 Feb. 2009 .

[5] "Napoleon Bonaparte." NEW ADVENT: Home. 09 Feb. 2009 .
[6] "Napoleon Bonaparte." NEW ADVENT: Home. 09 Feb. 2009 .

The Directory and Rise of Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte is considered to be one of the greatest leaders of all time. He became the supreme ruler of France although he was not a French native. He saved France from its imminent self destruction and restored peace throughout the country. He became a major threat to other leaders in Europe because of his military skills and because of his skills in politics.. During his reign he had to quell a rebellion in St. Dominique and proved to himself and to his citizens that he was capable of dealing with a rebellion quickly and efficiently. Because of Napoleon’s leadership skills the country of France and the Continent of Europe will be forever changed.

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica. He came from a minor noble family and became the supreme ruler of France. War was expensive, and the Directory government (1795–99) encouraged its generals to exact tribute from the local populations they conquered in order to pay for the maintenance of the armies. In 1789, 40,000 Jews lived in France, most of them in the eastern provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. Jews were barely tolerated, although they could practice their own religion under certain conditions. They had no civil or political rights and faced major prejudice by the populous of Europe. Jewish communities declared themselves as separate nations in France. In 1787 and 1788 the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences of the city of Metz in eastern France set up an essay competition on the question, "Are there means for making the Jews happier and more useful in France?” Of the three winners, in 1788, was Zalkind–Hourwitz, a Polish Jew. He wrote a pamphlet explaining that more rights to the Jews would make them more like the rest of the French population. He tried to counter all the typical stereotypes of Jews. He supported the Enlightenment and encouraged the conversion to Christianity.

During Napoleon’s reign he encountered many difficulties. One of these many difficulties that he encountered occurred in France’s Caribbean colonies. This was a major to both France and Napoleon because these colonies produced a vast amount of France’s exports. They produced twice the amount of revenue in exports as the British colonies produced and they were also twice the size of the British colonies. In the French colonies there were over 465,000 slaves and in the August of 1791, the slaves in northern St. Dominique organized a revolt. France immediately gave rights to the free people of color and because of this; the white planters and merchants signed an agreement with Great Britain, giving Britain control of St. Dominique. In addition to Britain interfering, Spain offered freedom to any slaves who would join their army and fight for them. Only a few thousand French troops were actually on the island, and they were easily outnumbered. The leader of the revolt was Toussaint L’Ouverture. Toussaint was a former slave who had educated himself and who turned the unorganized slave rebellion into a very organized and successful revolt. Toussaint took control of St. Dominique until 1802, when Napoleon sent French armies to retake control of St. Dominique. Toussaint was then sent to France where he died while in prison. Toussaint became a hero to all men of color and was a symbol of struggles to win freedom.

The First consul was a title used by Napoleon following his seizure of power in France. Originally, three equal consuls made up government established by Bonaparte. This established the consulate in France. Napoleon was the strongest of the three consul members. The term consul was as part of Bonaparte attempt to relate himself to Roman Ruler of ancient times. The title of consul was used in Rome by the two most powerful judges in the government. The consuls ran the republic and were the highest ranking military figures. Both consuls had equal authority and could veto each other. This was supposed to resist the onset of tyranny. The French system was similar except that there were three consuls instead of two. Bonaparte was the most prominent of all the consul members. Napoleon stayed on for much longer then becoming the emperor of Rome. The first French republic was officially the French republic. IT was established during the French revolution. On this day the monarchy was destroyed and King Louis was formally overthrown. This started the new age of republican government in Europe. The republic officially lasted until the establishment of the first French empire. Its leaders included Napoleon Bonaparte who served in the first consul. When he ended the republic he declared himself Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte I.

Napoleon was one of the greatness emperors of all time. He used his political skills to deal with the people of France. He used the directory to control his country by taking leaders and giving them power. Napoleon handled the slave rebellion in St. Dominique very efficiently and controlled the situation professionally. He successfully captured Toussaint L’ Ouverture, who ended up dying in prison. The first consul used three different leaders to rule the republic. Eventually Napoleon ended the republic and became emperor of France. During Napoleon’s reign he accomplished many things that no other emperor could have even thought of.

[1]“Bonaparte, First Consul of the French Republic, 18 Brumaire, Year VIII”, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/130/
[2]“A Grateful France Proclaims Napoleon the First Emperor of the French”, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/197/
[3]“Toussaint L’Ouverture”, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/224/
[4]“The Mode of exterminating the Black Army as practised by the French”,

http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/226/

Dean Sullivan, Christian Ercole, Luke Chiarolanzio

Terror and Resistance

(Pilage de la maison de St. Lazare, from http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/imaging/imagesnoflash/26.html)

Terror and Resistance was a major theme of the French Revolution and played a major role in why the peasants revolted. Peasants during this time were being mistreated by the government and they decided to revolt. Resistance to this Aristocratic dominance proved to be difficult, but things such as the war song of “La Marseillaise” helped provide motivation and encouragement to overthrow this unfair government. Strong individuals also helped the cause of the Revolutionaries. Robespierre gained power after the execution of Louis XVI and used this to help the peasants. He was known as “the immovable one” because his decisions could not be swayed. Later, however, Robespierre was thought to becoming dictator-like and the rest of the Committee of Public Safety overthrew him in the act of the Thermidorian Reaction. Through the terror instated by the Committee of Public Safety revolts continued with the help of motivating factors, such as “La Marseillaise”, eventually ending in the Thermidorian Reaction and the death of Robespierre.
“La Marseillaise” was one of the athems of the French Revolution, and is now the current French National Anthem. The lyrics of the song motivated and provided reasons for why the people were revolting. One such example of a revolt was the Vendee, in which farmer, peasants, and priests created guerilla armies to fight against the Republican Government. As the author, Claude de Lisle, states in the lyrics, “They are coming into your very homes to slaughter your sons and wives.” De Lisle is reinstating the fact that the army is harming them, doing evil things and for this the public must revolt to get rid of this evil. The song took all the reasons on why they were revolting, “sacred love of the homeland…Liberty, beloved Liberty.” This song was a great motivator for the revolutionaries to revolt with great anger, which was the most effective way to overthrow King Louis XVI. (1)

The Marseillaise

Maximillien de Robespierre was one of the most influential revolutionaries during the French Revolution. After the executions of Marie-Antoinette and King Louis XVI a temporary committee of leadership was created, this was the Committee of Public Safety. Although every member of the committee was said to have equal power, Robespierre took control, and had more power than everyone else. He promoted many ideals, including the De-Christianization of France, and the promotion of deism. Robespierre was very staunch in who he thought should be killed because of their crimes against the revolution, because of this he earned the name “L’incorruptible” or “The Incorruptable”, because he could not be swayed in his decisions. He is also famous for saying, “To punish the oppressors of humanity is clemency; to forgive them is cruelty,” which meant that punishing people who wish to oppress is a merciful act, while allowing them to go free is cruel. Robespierre was one of the key deciders in the guillotining of 1,285 people. (2) (Maximilien de Robespierre, from http://www.chd.univ-rennes1.fr/Icono/Thiers/20ThiersHRFt0304Robespierre.jpg)

The Thermidorian Reaction took place on 9 Thermidor Year II (July 27, 1794). This was the day on which, many members of The Committee of Public Safety attacked Robespierre for his “dictatorship” inside the Committee, the one thing Robespierre was trying to dispel from France. After many of the cooperators in Robespierre’s reign of terror had died or been killed, he had been swiftly losing support in the committee, and his only support lied in the Jacobin Club. However, he was also losing support from the Jacobin Club, after he had one of its most prominent members, Danton, an opponent of his, executed. On 9 Thermidor Year II, while there was a convention going on, one of the members of the Committee stood up and called for Robespierre’s arrest. When Robespierre saw this he shouted out to the convention for help on the denial of these charges, however everyone supported the charges, even Robespierre’s “supporters”. Robespierre tried to commit suicide by shooting himself in the head, however he missed, breaking his jaw. On the following day, 10 Thermidor Year II Robespierre was guillotined. (3) (The Death Of Robespierre, from http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/11/)

During the French Revolution, Terror and resistance became common themes in society. Revolt was introduced against the French nobles and aristocracy. “La Marseillaise,” an anthem of the revolution stimulated the peasants to rebel and take control of the government. Maximillien de Robespierre became an influential revolutionary in society as he became the most prominent member of the Committee of Public Safety, which became the temporary government after the execution of Marie-Antoinette and Louis XVI. Robespierre developed into the “dictator” of the committee, and he was eventually overthrown on 9 Thermidor Year II. He was guillotined representing the “Terror” of extreme power and authority of the Revolution. The peasants and lower class dominated France in this chaos of executions, and their cruel ways were successful and unstoppable by any form of government in France.

(1) http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/625/

(2)http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7c.html

(3)http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap7c.html

Sawyer Rice, Mike Innocenzi, Clay Haarmann, Connor Waite

Origins of the French Revolution

The French Revolution had its immediate origins in a constitutional crisis provoked by a growing government deficit, traceable to French involvement in the American War of Independence. Although vastly growing debt was a major factor in the French Revolution, the deepest origins can be traced to the struggle between the three estates, French government, and the French people’s desperate grasp towards the ideas of the Enlightenment. The French people began to aspire to the ideals of the Enlightenment, which included resentment of royal absolutism, aspirations for freedom of religion, liberty, and republicanism. Economic factors of the revolution included widespread malnutrition and famine. High unemployment rate and a high bread price caused more money to be spent on food than on other areas of the economy. Finally, and one of the most important origins, was the complete failure of Louis XVI and his advisors to fix these problems. The origins of the French Revolution were a culmination of social neglect, government abuses, economic turmoil, and a desire for enlightened change.[1]

This picture displays the Social causes and clashes, which lead to the French Revolution. In the picture the king, a noble, and even a member of the clergy, representing the first and second estates are on top of a suffering peasant, which represents the third estate. The Third estate was suffering before the French Revolution started, primarily because of their huge population. France had 20 million people living within 

its borders, a number equal to nearly 20 percent of non- Russian Europe. This huge population led to an epidemic disease and a huge number of food shortages. Peasants across the land only had enough food to feed their families. In 1789 the King called for an Estates-General and the social tensions plaguing the old regime emerged as a central issue of the Revolution. Traditionally, the estates representatives had belonged to one of the three orders of society, and in principle watch order had an equal voice before the King however the majority of the clergy was made up of the nobles. This picture shows the nobles and the clergy together because the man represting the clergy has his hand around the noble. Overall the peasants were being oppressed buy the teamed-up clergy and noble which lead to the peasants revolting against the king. The Mountains and the Gitrondins were two groups that revolted against the king. While the Girondins wanted to exile the king the Mountains wanted to kill him. [2]

The monarchical powers in France before the French revolution were much disliked and demanding of the people and the Revolution seemed imminent with the struggle for power. During the reign of Louis XV through Louis XVI, the monarchy struggled due to increased taxes for the people and extra sacrifices that the people had to make for the betterment of the society. As seen is the picture above, you are seeing the end result of the monarchy distrust for the people and vice versa. In this picture, Foulon, a noble official to the monarchy in France, is beheaded and humiliated publicly in the streets of France. This parading of a beheaded official proves that the people of France disapproved of the French monarchy and did not allow themselves to be governed by corruption. These kinds of activities proved the Revolution was going to be successful and led right into the fall of the monarchy and the fall of Bastille. As you can see in this picture, the hatred is great, for there are dogs and other savage men wanting other parts of the official’s body for torture. The republic created due to the vile acts of the people destroying the monarchy devised a new constitution formed from their two newest assemblies, the National Assembly and the National Convention. The National Assembly had the most difficult job of controlling the still disappointed peasants in the countryside. This new constitution was also worked on by the political clubs in Paris such as the Jacobin Club, which was made of people that fit into the phrase “sans-culottes”, or “without breeches”.[3]

When the storming of the Bastille took place, it gave commoners a new sense of pride and authoritative command. At the same time, people from the third estate were seen as violent and willing to disrupt the flow of politics. Since many members of the third estate were presented with an immense hunger and an overall food shortage, many people provoked riots towards the strict, local government. When the rebels exiled the local government, they installed their own people into the system and developed a National Guard. This guard dedicated their efforts to rescue countless peasants from famine and from the hands of the second estate government, which caused the Great Fear, hysteria amongst the townspeople. These common people showed how to successfully intervene with their own government, and stood against the higher authority. The Marquis de Lafayette, the commander of the rebels, led his National Guard to victory and took over the Bastille.[4]

The French Revolution differed greatly from any other revolution. Not only was France the richest, most powerful, and most populous state in western Europe, but its revolution was also more violent, longer lasting, and ultimately influential. The French Revolution pledged, “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity” for all. Its origins are found in the government’s poor control over the French state and its economy. This in turn, had an immediate effect on the already struggling third estate, which categorized about 95% of the population in France. The third estate saw the ideas of the Enlightenment put into practice at the end of the American Revolution and desired this same radical change in their government and the way they lived. Social struggle, a failing economy, and a government that stood by and did nothing were enough for the French people to make a stand in order to forever better their lives.[5]

[1] Center for History & New Media. Imaging of the French Revolution
[2] Center for History & New Media. Exploring the French Revolution
[3] Center for History & New Media. Imaging of the French Revolution
[4] Center for History & New Media. Imaging of the French Revolution
[5] Center for History & New Media. Imaging of the French Revolution