Civilians, Gender, and the War

The true character of a nation often shines through in a time of war. Qualities like masculinity, work ethic and unity become essential in order for the nation to ultimately succeed. Governments glorified the act of enlisting as an ultimate sign of masculinity, as well as convincing men of their duties. Yet, war itself for the men was different than portrayed. WW1 propaganda posters also informed women of their duties. Women were needed to work for the enlisted men in their lives. Citizens who were not directly an element of the war involuntarily became part of it. War calls men to display their manhood, women to step up in society, and an overall cooperation and commitment by all.
Throughout World War One, gender played a large role in determining one’s responsibility. For men, the task was to fight in the war. War has always symbolized manhood, and there is nothing more masculine than fighting in the war. To help recruit men, many posters were displayed everywhere, emphasizing masculinity. In Britain, enlistment posters called for men to enlist, and made the posters appealing by focusing on manliness. In one recruiting poster in Britain, lions are roaring to show the calling for men.

The lion that is roaring is a strong, powerful looking male lion, and is standing on the British flag. His glorious mane shows his valor. Around him are other lions, which are female, yet still well-built. These lions represent the other countries allied to Great Britain. They are shown as female to show how the male one (British) is overpowering the other countries, and this causes a sense of nationalism. Nationalism was used as propaganda in many other posters. For example, the poster that portrays a soldier in front of the British flag gives off a sense of nationalism, and its goal is to show how soldiers represent the nation. Also in that picture is the incorporation of heroism. Those who fight in the war, as well as those who die in the war, are seen as heroes, and it is propagandized that anyone who participates in the war will become a hero. By being a hero, it gives one a sense of patriotism and reverence. This appealed specifically to men, for they wanted to follow in the footsteps of the heroes that are fighting to protect their country. However, the war and the battles were different than the propaganda used to recruit soldiers.
War, specifically the front, was exceedingly brutal, and it was not what the men expected. One soldier describes the violence. “This style of warfare is extremely modern and for the artillerymen is doubtless very interesting, but for the poor common soldier it is anything but romantic. His rôle is simply to dig himself a hole in the ground and to keep hidden in it as tightly as possible. Continually under the fire of the opposing batteries, he is yet never allowed to get a glimpse of the enemy. Exposed to all the dangers of war, but with none of its enthusiasms or splendid élan, he is condemned to sit like an animal in its burrow and hear the shells whistle over his head and take their little daily toll from his comrades. Cramped quarters breed ill temper and disputes. The impossibility of the simplest kind of personal cleanliness makes vermin a universal ill, against which there is no remedy. Cold, dirt, discomfort, are the ever present conditions, and the soldier's life comes to mean to him simply the test of the most misery that the human organism can support. He longs for an attack, to face the barbed wire and the mitrailleuse, anything for a little”[1] This describes he role of the common soldier as well as the discomforts and misery of life in the trenches. It illustrates the continual struggle of the artillery. Only the men have to do this, for this was their role and what they have to put up with. Showing how awful the front in this memoir relates to All Quiet on the Western Front, as it displays the horrors and suffering the war caused. Men’s role in the war required them to prove their masculinity. However, they were not the only gender that played a role throughout the war.

Prior to the First World War, stereotypes had depicted men as being the war heroes while their women took care of matters back home. World War I gave rise to a new role for women, as they became more and more useful in the productivity of the war effort. During the war, women were able to carry out tasks that were previously taken care of by male workers, which allowed more men to fight on the front. Women thus assumed a new image as the “behind the scenes” heroines of the war.
The first instance of female assistance in Britain was the establishment of the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry, also known as FANY. Nurses in FANY were known to drive ambulances, as well as to set up field hospitals and soupt kitchens for the troops. Similar to FANY, the Women’s Royal Navy Service (WRNS) and the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) provided direct services for the soldiers who were fighting on the front. The women who worked in these divisions were able to provide their services by doing domestic services such as cooking, cleaning, and mechanical work. Women were recruited heavily, as there services freed up more men to participate in combat on the front. Women of the WRNS and WAAC were praised in Britain for their patriotism and their hard work, however, the roles other women played, were not looked upon as highly by men in the community.
In the absense of several male domestic workers during the first world war, there was a great need for help in the workforce. This need provided a new role for women during the First World War. While initially there was a rise in female unemployment, as middle-class citizens couldn’t afford to pay for servants, maids, etc. many factory jobs were left unattended to in the absense of the male soldiers. As a result, many of the jobs that were previously held by men, were given to women during the war. The women who held these jobs were motivated by freedom and increased wages, although on most accounts they only received half the amount that men received. The “Munitionettes” were the most important of the female factory workers as they produced 80% of the weapons and shells used by the British Army during the war. The jobs they held were often extremely hazardous, as the worked with poisonous materials, but their dedication to improving the reputation of women was enough to motivate them to continue. Although it may have improved the image of females at the time, there efforts were not given much reward. When the men who had fought in the war returned, women were dismissed back to their homes to make room. Despite the fact that they were given little recognition for their dedication, the women of Britain played a large part in the communal effort in fighting the war.
In World War One, a country’s involvement in the war, meant the participation of every citizen, regardless of age or gender. It was inevitable that each citizen became involved (unfortunately this national wartime unification does not exist in present day U.S.A). He or she has an obligation to help their country in this time of need, whether it means losing one’s job and going to the front lines, or taking up a new job in an assembly line in a factory. The success of the war effort by the Allied powers was as much, or more of a result of the efforts of the men, women, and children on the home front.
Women played a huge role in WW1, more than in any previous war. Women produced most of the supplies that were use by the soldiers fighting in the war. Many women took factory jobs, and for the first time, large amounts of women were out working instead of filling their usual role of staying at home. This threw a huge curve-ball at the idea of women’s role in society. The inspiration for these hard-working women was the fact that the majority of them had husbands, boyfriends, and brothers that enlisted. They were also working for their children. Children may not seem like they had much affect on the war, but they actually did (Most likely unintentionally). Children, along with women provided the inspiration for many men to enlist. They were what the men were fighting for. In big enlistment rallies, men who did not enlist would be approached by children who gave them white feathers, symbolizing their lack of manhood. Men who were not fighting in the war were not a complete disgrace. Many Men who did not enlist worked in factories making supplies or helped to supply the army with food .
Food was in short supply because of the war. Certain items like sugar had to be rationed. However, rationing didn't always leave enough food to keep the troops properly fed. In order for there to be more food for the army, the government urged the people at home to help solve this problem by growing their own gardens at home and making their own food. This way, more food could go to the soldiers on the front lines rather than to the people at home. If something like this were to be proposed today, there would be outrage. Many people today lack that all for on and one for all mentality. Today I feel that the media is causing the American people to loose confidence in their nation by shining a bad light on our military involvements and our way of life while focusing on what other countries think of us. The patriotism and commitment-to-countries seen in WWI is admirable. These days we need something to bring our deeply divided country together.
World War I set a new precedent for the stereotypical ideals of war. Not only were men important for their physical contributions on the front and in the trenches, but the contributions of women and the support of the community played a large role as well. Thanks to the strides made during the First World War, the burden of warfare is no longer solely carried on the shoulders of men, nor are women simply dismissed to taking care of the home. The efficiency of today’s armies can thus be attributed to the progress of World War I and the effect it had on our views of gender, community, and war.

By Ben Reynolds, Conor Buckley, and Will Huff

Sources
· http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/wrns.asp
· http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/womenww1_four.htm
· http://www.familyrecords.gov.uk/focuson/womeninuniform/default.htm
· Goldstein, Joshua S. War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa. Cambridge University Press, 2001
· Seeger, Alan. http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/memoir/Seeger/Alan1.htm#II
[1] Seeger, Alan. http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/memoir/Seeger/Alan1.htm#II

WWI Britain

World War I - The Great War, as contemporaries identified it -was the earliest man-made catastrophe of the twentieth century. The underlying causes of this warfare are shrouded in skepticism and controversy and are still in debate among scholars and historians alike. A fact that is recognized by all is the truth that the war constituted the death and mourning of many valiant men. Regardless, the course of the war involved the participation of all civilians. This included the involvement of men as well as that of women, which in itself brought about a feminizing of home front society. The conventional view that the men on the front held the most responsibility was greatly altered as civilians began to acquire equal accountabilities and role in the war. For example women were encouraged to enlist in medical care and textile factories. Additionally, farmers and factory workers aided by increasing their work efforts in order to appease the demand of supplies required for the men n the front, which aided to confirm the role of civilians in the war.

The effect that World War I had upon civilians was devastating. The Great World War was a war that affected civilians on an extraordinary scale. Residents became a military target to the enemy. The economic impact of World War I meant that there were shortages of all produce. Living standards plunged, and the post-war economic state of Europe was at mid 19th century levels. During the war, eight to ten million soldiers were killed in battle, and twenty-two million were injured. This meant that nearly every person lost a family member, the population losses were enormous. In 1918, immediately after the war, there was an epidemic of influenza. The total amount of deaths from the disease after a year was on the same scale as the number of casualties as the "Black death" epidemic in the middle ages. Propaganda at the time also gave the false impression to the public that everything was reasonable, when in reality so many people were dying. World War I also had a large impact upon the role of women in a family.

With all the men at war as soldiers, women began working for a living. Although Women’s wages were not as high as the men’s were, they still took control and were a big benefit toward the war. The life for the civilians in the war was hectic, being a primary target of attack. When the war ended this caused a large conflict, but nevertheless, the role of women in society had gone through a radical change. This war caused a feminist movement and led to women being able to vote. The war gave the women an opportunity to prove themselves as valuable in society. Previously thought as someone who stays inside tending the house and family, women gained more respect. Feminist women were to be found in all classes but always as a minority; working-class feminists, besides, would often combine feminism and trade-unionism much to the dismay of their upper-class sisters. These included women in key positions such as administrators in government organizations and home front political unions.

In the war, children were left without fathers, and other family members. It was the women’s obligations to take over the “home front”. Experience for civilians in the war was all different. Although, it was hectic and frightening being under attack, the children could not do much to help with the war. All they could do was to attempt small tasks with their mothers. Unlike the male and female civilians who filled in the roles of the men and women that left for war. Jobs such as knitting socks and other articles of clothing or working in factories such as making ammunition were helpful in the time of war. During the war, the civilians were all anxious, and everyone wanted the war to be over as soon as possible. Because so many people perished, mourning and longing for a spouse or family member was a big part of civilian life. Overall the work force during the First World War from the civilians left at home left a major impact for women in society, feminism, and toward the victory of the war.

American agriculture boomed in World War I when the United States in essence fed the allied nations as well as its own wartime armed forces. Farmers increased their production through purchase of gasoline‐powered machinery and the cultivation of additional land. When the wartime foreign and military demands declined after the war, export markets collapsed, and American agriculture, already heavily in debt from the wartime expansion, plunged into a severe economic depression. More than ever, the war effort depended on the support and willingness to sacrifice of whole peoples. Women and children often took over the jobs of men in industry and agriculture.

A French politician, Albert Thomas, had a wartime job at the munitions ministry led to significantly increased output of munitions throughout WWI.[1] He immediately set about reorganizing France's method of munitions production. He acted to retrieve a half million men already serving with the army to aid in munitions production. He also introduced a policy of military exemptions for munitions personnel, in addition to encouraging a greater working role for women. Refugees and prisoners of war were similarly recruited to aid in the French war effort.

In Germany and Austria food became so scarce that famines occurred. To support more than four years of industrialized warfare, national governments almost everywhere faced tasks of an unexpected magnitude. They had to ensure industrial production for the fighting while millions of able-bodied men served in the military; they had to organize the food supply and keep up morale at home and in the front lines. Soon after the outbreak of the First World War the German Navy attempted to halt the flow of imports to Britain by introducing unrestricted submarine warfare. Panic buying led to shortages and so in January 1918, the Ministry of Food decided to introduce rationing. Sugar was the first to be rationed and this was later followed by butchers' meat. The idea of rationing food was ultimately to guarantee supplies, rather than to reduce consumption.

World War I was a global military conflict which involved the majority of the current world’s great powers. In a state of total war, the major combatants placed their scientific and industrial capabilities at the service of the war effort. Civilians during this war were an essential aspect in overall victory. With the help of women, injured men were able to be treated quickly and effectively, and were also useful for completing tasks that men “left behind”. A novel by Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front, accurately depicts this. In the novel the men on the front face heavy adversity from their enemy. Consequently, they are intensely dependent on the help of the support of people such as industrialists, farmers, and nurses. Moreover, men that chose not to head to the front, still proved useful for towards the cause of the war. Produce and munitions were supplied due to the patriotism that is displayed through increased work efforts. Ultimately, despite the large number of men who perished during the course of the war, the effort placed by all the civilians proved to make worthy their sacrifice.

-Oladeji Odewade, Noah Joachim, Cameron Macaulay

[1] http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/thomas.htm

Gender and The War

Gender and the War

During WWI gender roles of citizens were depicted through many different types of media, including posters, postcards, and other types of propaganda. Women were depicted as support for the men on the home front. This included raising children and taking care of the mother country while the men were gone. Also, the women were shown that they were supposed to be working in the different factories, in order to support their men in the war. The Red Cross, a mobile medical relief station for wounded soldiers, was also another front where women could help in the war effort. Men were also depicted in these posters and postcards, and they were shown how they should be acting during the war. Men were shown that all men should enlist in the army “until the enemy is crushed.” Also, men were shown that they were not supposed to be slackers, and that even though their place may not lie on the front lines they still should be doing all they can to assist the men who are on the front lines. Men were also shown pictures of decorated war heroes, showing them that by fighting in the army one could achieve great respect from the public. These posters showed that the role of a woman was to provide support for the men in whatever way they could she could, while a man was supposed to be fighting valiantly for his country during a war.

Women in World War I were a vital part towards the War effort and were a main reason for the victory of the Allied Powers. Women provided a source of workers that was not present before, which boosted economy and helped the Allied Powers in their Arms race. Women worked in munitions factories and other jobs to support the soldiers. Women made clothes for soldiers and were a source of work that was absent because of the recently drafted men that were now out of the country. They could also be soldiers themselves. The Royal Air Force drafted Women to work as pilots because pilots did not necessary need the physical qualifications that men possessed. In World War I, women were a fantastic support system to men and each other to help the War as much as they could.

Women workers during the early nineteenth century dramatically increased to due to economic needs that preparation for War and the War itself demanded. As an arms race was going on between the two opposing forces, the Allied incorporated the use of women to help boost their stock of various supplies.[i] Public posters and other types of mass media were used to hook women into the workforce. Media sought to gain a women workforce through glamorizing jobs and showing how this was the right thing to do for the country.

Women were not just restricted to domestic and agricultural work. Women were fully involved in directly supporting the War. Women were now working in munitions factories and posters were put up to advertise the benefits of these types of jobs. Again, Patriotism was a main way of hooking women into the jobs.

Women were turning into a powerful commodity and were now becoming a powerful force that could really change the fate of the War. Women workers provided men with the things they needed in order to be successful in War, however the women back home were also helping out their fellow women soldiers.

Women soldiers were another force that helped the War. Women soldiers were drafted into several divisions of the United States military and where successful in all of them. Women were especially successful in the Air Force because of the fact that the air force did not demand the physical qualifications that most women did not possess at the time. The Women’s Royal Air Force was a very successful was a great way for women to get involved in the War effort.

Women were also involved in the United States Navy; working as nurses or telegraph workers oversees.[ii] Women had been transformed into a great support force because they could work in many jobs, showing versatility in a time of great need.

Some Russian Women were known as the greatest soldiers of their Army. The “Battalion of Death”[iii] was a section lead by Maria Botchkareva, a peasant soldier who had become listed as a regular troop; she save hundreds of lives on the front with her comrades, earning her the respect of other men. She was wounded several times, but always returned. She was a symbol for women’s bravery during the war. Women had been transformed from viewed as a domestic and feminine force to a gritty and battle ready force.

Women also provided a different kind of role during the War. Some women did not want to enlist as soldiers but wanted to help on the enemy fronts. These occupations included Nurses and telegraph operators. Nurses at the front line would help wounded soldiers on the battle field and would also carry them back to the safety of the hospitals far from enemy lines. Telegraph workers would operate machines for the men on the front and would transmit messages that were crucial for battle positioning. Perhaps the most important contribution in this effort was the Red Cross.

Women who were involved in this were highly respected because they gave soldiers, food, water and care. The Red Cross was known as “The Greatest Mother in the World”[iv] This symbol of the Red Cross was a symbol of safety which was a further manifestation of traditional women views. The Red Cross was perhaps the biggest contribution of women towards the War because of its effect still felt today in the modern military.

Throughout WWI, men and women were separately sought to provide benefits, support, and aggressiveness. Men were drafted in large numbers, as the overall aspect of manliness immensely rose during the war. Manliness developed as being able to serve the war effort and being fit, robust, and courageous. At the time of WWI, men were seen as becoming war heroes, having the duty of protecting the country and being courageous.

Manliness was heavily idolized and remained very important throughout the course of WWI. Men were seen as a higher standard and above women in the war effort, in that they were summoned to serve their country in the armed forces. The above picture shows a popular poster depicting the call of all able men to serve in war. As much as women were heavily needed to supply food and nursing for the war effort, men were also in high demand because of their strong bodies and aggressiveness that would perfectly fit in with the fighting against their enemies. By enlisting in the army, a man was also looked upon as a hero and a patriot by their country. Propaganda, an example of which is this poster, filled the streets during the war and was the primary motivation for men to serve in the armed force.

In addition to the acquiring of men and women during the war, people were also upheld to certain standards; the armed forces needed to make sure citizens were taking it as seriously as the army was. Although a man or women may have thought their place was not on the front lines, they were still expected to do whatever they could for the war. “We are in low spirits. After we have been in the dug-outs two hours our own shells begin to fall in the trench. This is the third time in four weeks.”[v] Men who were called into the war effort were asked of a great deed and required all the support from friends and family as well as the entire country. Both men and women were given the opportunity to protect and serve their country; if they didn’t perform up to the exalted expectations or did not wish to support their fellow citizens, people were seen as freeloaders and cowards.

There was no doubt to any soldier, during the war, that fighting for one’s country would bring eternal pride and praise to him and his family. A highly decorated general, as shown in the above poster, illustrated to every citizen of his or her courageous soldiers that were defending the country. In retrospect, Colonel Himmelstoss, in All Quiet on the Western Front, is a perfect example of a highly apraised man who sacrificed his life to protect the country that he loved. Because of his dedication and excellence during the time of the war, Colonel Himmelstoss was noted as a great leader who pushed his commrades to succeed and to never back down from the enemy. This colonel relates to the man in the poster, in that they both did a great deal in fully subscribing themselves to the services of the nation. Because of their effort, they made a considerable impact on their peers as well as the country’s security.

Men and women, while both playing different roles during the war, were both extremely vital in the victory for the Allies. These posters, and other forms of mass media, showed that the role of a woman was to provide support for the men in whatever way they could she could, while a man was supposed to be fighting valiantly for his country during a war. Men were shown posters that encouraged all men to join army. Also, men were shown different images of well respected and highly decorated war heroes. These showed the men something that they could aspire to be when they joined the military. In addition, men were shown that they were supposed to do whatever they could do to support the war, men who were seen as slackers were not treated well during war time, and even if you felt you were not supposed to be on the front lines, you were to do whatever you could to support the war effort. Women were mainly uses as a support system; however they were also used as troops in special cases, such as the Royal Air Force. Women were also used as troops in cases such as the Royal Air Force because pilots didn’t need the physical qualifications that foot soldiers needed. The Red Cross was another front in which women could help in the war. This allowed women to be helping the men on the front line by providing them with medical relief. Also, women were used in factories to make up for the labor lost by men being drafted into the war. The women during became the main support system for the men fighting on the front lines, and in some cases became soldiers themselves.

By Sawyer Rice, Mike Innocenzi, and Garrett Hamm

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[i] Spielvogel, Jackson. Western Civilization (California: Thompson Wadworth, 2006) p. 770

[ii] Goldstein, Joshua. The Women of World War 1 – War and Gender: How Gender Shaped the War System (Cambridge University Press, 2001) http://www.warandgender.com/wgwomwwi.htm

[iii] Goldstein

[iv] Goldstein

[v] Remarque, Erich. P. 100

Gender Roles in WWI

Peter Chambers

Patrick Ferguson

Ryan Poehner

In the times prior to World War 1, men held a majority of the roles important to life, while women were seen as caretakers of the home and children. However, during the Great War many of the roles separated by gender were twisted with the absence of men in the country. In World War 1 the roles for men and women were changed. Women’s roles were extended into various industries supporing the war in the home front as well as continuing to run their homes effciently. Women’s roles also streched into the army, where they served as soldiers proper. Simultaneously, men were being recruited more and more to serve their countries with courage and honor by joining the army.

In World War 1, also referred to as the Great War, each gender played large rolls in the war efforts. The women on the Home Front, while the men acted on the Front Lines. The men were attracted to the positions in the army because of their masculine appeal. In many of the posters that the government used to advertise positions in the army openly displayed the masculinity of the soldiers as to make war, and heroism, appeal romantically to the men. One of the posters[1] displays a tank majestically jumping over trenches in front of an orange sunset, similar to a whale breaching and jumping in the ocean during a sunset. This poster is specifically meant to arouse men and their masculinity, rather than being seen as frail, weak, or even cowardly. Shakespeare says it best in Henry V “[they] hold their manhoods cheap whiles any speaks/ That fought with us upon Saint Crispin’s day.”[2] In this part of the play Henry rallies his troops to fight for him boldly and honorably, exactly the same as the task that Britain is faced with in WWI. This idea of cowardice and bravery is reflected in Erich Maria Remarque’s first-hand-account of the War to End All Wars, All Quiet on the Western Front. In this novel Kantorek, a high school teacher, inspires a group of young men to enlist in the German army to defend their country. Kantorek is constantly romanticizing about the war and the positives of serving for their country. As a result of his teachings, many of the boys enlist in the army to honorably serve their country. With Social Darwinism becoming popular in the beginning of the war, each country is trying to promote its fitness and countries can prove their fitness through war and winning battles. One of the most important aspects to the fitness of one’s country was the weaponry that was being used.[3] In most cases the large cannons were seen as direct images of masculinity because of the amount of power that they contained, and the soldiers’ ability to tame that power. The Romantic view of war and heroism made it important for men to display their masculinity through war, as a soldier.[4]

During the beginning stages of the First World War, many women jumped on the nationalistic band wagon. While it was highly uncommon for women to support their country by fighting on the front lines, there was an overwhelming opportunity for them to help back on the home front. Organizations such was the Queen Mary’s Army Auxiliary Corps (QMWAA), served as an outlet for these ambitious women. Also the new dependencies on industrial production allowed for women to find work in places such as munitions factories. For example, in the beginning of WWI in Britain, close to one million lower class women soon found themselves working the munitions plants of Britain. These women soon became known as “munitionettes”. One downside to becoming a woman activist is that munitions experts and employees’ work contributes to the fighting, they are not able to profess their pacifism. The soon increasing nationalism created by these women in factories soon spread to other sections of Europe. In Scotland in 1918 some shell working Scottish women raised and funded the money for an air force warplane.[5]

Not all of these effects for women were positive however, Eric Leed argues that the new opportunities for women in World War I created, “an enormously expanded range of escape routes from the constraints of the private family” because the war caused “the collapse of those established, traditional distinctions” that usually restrained women’s actions.[6] This is an unfavorable trend formed by working in the factories. Soon women lost the genteel ideals which had been instilled in them since birth. This can be seen also in other forms of life such as the carnivals of the early twentieth century.

From the European perspective, women were not always seen as just aids to help the men on the front line. Many countries, such as the United States of America, used women simply as aids. “They helped nurse the wounded, provide food and other supplies to the military, serve as telephone operators (the “Hello Girls”), entertain troops, and work as journalists.”[7] Women basically played the same role as they did on the home front; to keep their men happy, in good health if wounded, to cook meals, and repair clothing that possibly lost a button. If the women were not involved firsthand with the military performing these duties, they were used to literally shame men into going into battle. “In Britain and America during that war, women organized a large-scale campaign to hand out white feathers to able-bodied men found on the streets, to shame the men for failing to serve in combat.”[8]

Most of the countries involved in World War I assigned women with the same roles, with the exception of some nations like Russia. The Russians did attempt to shame the men into fighting, but through a different method. Though it was not fully accepted, women in Russia were not restricted from enlisting in the military. Originally, women who wished to join the military dressed up as men and cut their hair in an attempt to conceal their true identity. Others though, such as Maria Botchkareva, went directly to the czar and ask for approval to openly enlist. After proving women could fight in battle, women like Botchkareva requested the approval of an all female battalion; thus the Battalion of Death was formed. The Russian government used the women’s battalion in two ways: as normal soldiers to fight on the front, and as objects to shame men into fighting. The idea was to send with Battalion of Death to the front and have them basically out-perform their male counterparts. The Russians hoped that the men would then feel as if they were the weaker of the sexes, and thus they would attempt to out-perform the women and more willingly go into the trenches. The Russians soon found though, that these tactics would not work. Though the women were sent over the trenches to advance in an attempt to encourage their comrades to fight, it ultimately proved fruitless. The somewhat fourteen million Russian soldiers all across the front remained static. The operation proved only to work mildly within the few miles where the Battalion of Death had led the charge. In fact, only about four hundred men in the trenches alongside the women were willing to fight with them.

Gender roles played a unique part in World War I. Men were expected to be the stereotypical hero and fight in battle under all circumstances in a chance to prove their masculinity. Those who did not willingly enlist in the army were basically outcasts who the governments decided to attempt to shame into fighting. The role of women came into play at this point. The Russians shamed men into fighting by allowing an all female battalion, which would be sent into the trenches to make the men feel insignificant and cowardly. At the same time though, women who were not directly in battle were expected to aid the cause in some way. They were expected to support the war by working in places such as munitions factories, or to entertain and nurse the wounded. In other words, if you were not a part of the cause in some way, you were abnormal in the sense that you were either a coward or were not the ideal homemaker.

[1] http://digital.lib.umn.edu/IMAGES/reference/mswp/msp02056.jpg
[2] St Crispen’s Day Speech, Shakespeare’s Henry V, available at: http//www.chronique.com/Library/Knights/crispen.htm
[3] http://www.firstworldwar.com/photos/graphics/cnp_turret_guns_01.jpg
[4] http://digital.lib.umn.edu/IMAGES/reference/mswp/msp02038.jpg
[5] http://www.warandgender.com/wgwomwwi.htm
[6] http://www.warandgender.com/wgwomwwi.htm
[7] http://www.warandgender.com/wgwomwwi.htm
[8] http://www.warandgender.com/wgwomwwi.htm

Gender Roles and Proganda in WWI

Throughout WWI, the gender roles between men and women were slowly being defined through the use of propaganda. Men and women were both assigned specific roles in these images. Men were given the role of the soldier, the leader, and the one responsible for fighting. Men were always shown as strong, high up, and solely responsible for taking an active role in the war effort. Men were the worker and the father who would provide for the family and in this case, the war. The women, on the other hand, were depicted very differently. Women were given jobs that would support the efforts of their fighting soldiers. Women were depicted as nurses, factory workers, cooks, mechanics, and other secondary jobs that although were imperative to the successes of the effort, took place back at home or off the battle field in Europe. The armies of twentieth-century total war depended on women in new ways, not only within the army but in the civilian workforce. In 1914, feminist Carrie Chapman Catt warned that “war falls on the women most heavily, and more so now than ever before.” Both Britain and the United States mobilized substantial numbers of women into war-related industries, and into the workplace generally to make male workers available for military use. These arrangements, although effective in boosting the war effort, almost everywhere were cast as temporary. They used, rather than challenged, existing gender stereotypes. During WWI, the over 25,000 US women who served in Europe, did so on an entrepreneurial basis. The roles that women served in were restricted to a standard of social acceptance, which men would provide for the family and women would stay home a care for the house and children.


At the beginning and throughout WWI, gender roles continued to become defined through propaganda. Men and women were not only depicted in certain ways in these images, but would also fill those roles in the war effort. This mass propaganda also began to pressure society into taking part into the war. Men especially were pressured because of the mass need for soldiers to enlist in the military. Posters would show brave men and catchy slogans that would force the reader to reconsider their participation towards the war effort. Slogans reading, “We want you” and “More men” could be found anywhere and put the burden of conscience onto the reader. Young men were pressured by their friends and peers to join the service and would later discover the horror of war. As the war continued, propaganda posters were continuing to be produced. Men were a valuable resource to the military and the more men they had, the better chance to win the war. Young and old alike saw the call for more troops through the use of propaganda. Men were imposed a responsibility to fight in battle and defeat the enemy. Many people, however, do not understand the devastating effects war had on people. Like in All Quiet on the Western Front, the pressure from society forced men to enlist. In this poster, a brave and strong soldier is sounding the trumpet for more troops. He is calling for only men and is speaking in a relentless tone. The effects that posters like this had towards specific gender roles, was profound. The posters changed the brutality of war into a social burden, where one must make the decision to go to war, or suffer the ridicule of your peers who may be serving.


Throughout the Great War, gender roles were very distinguished and apparent all around Europe. A typical day for a woman in Europe was very restricted and women had little freedom in society. In the picture below, we can identify a woman with a cloth draped over her while covering three children close to her body. By the looks on their faces, the children seem scared of something taking them away from the warmth of their guardian. The guardian, the tall woman, is looking off into the distance and is shielding the children from what is to come. However, the most powerful people in the picture are the two little girls, who appear to be very close, whether they are sisters or just good friends. They express the most of what a woman feels they are asked to do in a time of crisis, and the boy on the left seems like is not necessarily sad but waiting to be called upon. This really shows the true gender roles during the Great War. A man’s role was to wait for his call to arms, as the young boy in the picture is doing in my mind, or to step forward and join the army by choice or by influence, as Paul and his friends did in All Quiet on the Western Front. On the other hand, a woman through the Great War’s role is to protect and treat their families and the hurt of the war. For example, over 25,000 women in the US took up jobs in nursing the wounded and treating the sick during the war.[1] Even in this picture, the women’s knack for caring for people and nourishing their families is apparent. The fact that the women is wearing a red cross symbol further shows the care she is willing and called upon to apply. This picture seems also to articulate Paul’s childhood. In his early years he and his friends did not want to be in the army and go to war. They were the little boy in the picture under their mother’s cloth, but then they met Kantorek, a schoolteacher who was very adamant about the war. He forced them out of their childhood shells and forced Paul and his friends to enlist and join the army. To society, they became manlier by joining the army and despite them not wanting to be there, the fact that they were manly was very important to the morale of a soldier like Paul and his friends in All Quiet on the Western Front.


Throughout the book All Quiet on the Western Front, the theme of patriotism and manhood was expressed through every person Paul and his friends seemed to come across. That was also one of the overriding themes of the Great War. In the picture below, there is indecision in the tall man with a suit on whether or not to enlist. He understands the meaning and reasoning behind going to war, but he can’t seem to commit to going or staying behind. This was the situation Paul was in before he met Kantorek. Paul was the tall man in the suit knowing that he is supposed to enlist but fears what will happen at the front. In All Quiet on the Western Front, Paul vividly explains trench life and other duties at the front, for he said,
“Three guns open fire close behind us. The burst of flame shoots across the fog, the guns roar and boom. We shiver and are glad to think that we shall be back in the huts early in the morning.”[2]
In this quote, we see Paul’s desire to be out of danger and back in the “safety” of the hut. The hut is just their place where Paul and his friends are not under consistent and persistent gunfire. Also, that fear of the front and dying is the “BUT!!!” in the phrase, “I Should go BUT!!!”, going through the man in the picture’s mind. Most people knew during the Great War that their governments wanted them to enlist. The phrase, “You are no exception.”, is trying to manipulate people into thinking that joining the army was obligatory and that if you did not join, you would be seen as a coward and less of a man. In All Quiet on the Western Front, the poster is represented by Kantorek, an adamant patriot, who is unrelentless in pushing Paul and his friends to join the army. They are indecisive as the man in the picture, however, Kantorek does not quit in his attempts to make them volunteer soldiers. As most propaganda in the twentieth century, this poster is encouraging patriotism. Kantorek played on patriotism as well telling the boys that volunteering for the army would make them more of a patriot. He was also nonstop with the persuasion, and the boys gave in after some time. This is exactly what the picture is portraying the government to be doing. They are trying to imply that joining the army is obligatory and that no one is exempt from their duty as a citizen.


Gender roles have been changing throughout the course of history. During WWI, these roles between men and women were depicted in propaganda in order to raise the soldier count in the war. The posters showed many different scenes, but generally stayed to one over-arching theme that could be found in another. These scenes would generally describe the need for soldiers, roles of woman, and instill a strong sense of patriotism and nationalism into the reader. Propaganda shaped the roles of men and woman alike during the war. The responsibilities and pressures of war were expressed through the use of propaganda and forced young and old alike, to reconsider their views of the war and their participation in it. The burden of war was put onto the shoulders of the men and women who stayed home and defined social responsibility among people and the soldiers fighting.


Kyle Brennan, Morgan Pearson, Charles Yakimischak


[1] http://www.warandgender.com/wgwomwwi.htm
[2] All Quiet on the Western Front p 53-54

The Expression of Propaganda in WWI

Manhood and patriotism became major themes throughout the stages of World War I. To appeal the emotion of the public propaganda was often used. Propaganda was illustrated through many different ideas but a common form was through posters. The posters reached out to the public because they expressed ideas of manhood and patriotism. From patriotism of the men and woman, a strong sense of nationalism began to formulate around their respective homelands. Citizens and war combatants had their civic duties to their mother country and performing these duties displayed the ultimate form of patriotism. Fighting in the war articulated the manhood a young man could possess. While avoiding the war, was a sign of cowardice. Fighting in the war became accepted by man, and they became responsible to act on the call of war. The novel, All Quiet on the Western Front, expresses all the factors of war include nationalism, patriotism, manhood, cowardice, and the significance of women, similar to the posters. Each country had their unique forms of attracting young men to the war effort, which could be the most creative but cleverest task of the war.

Posters, music, and poetry were all very popular uses of propaganda. This poster is an example of the use of manhood, patriotism, and even cowardice. In this image, Great Britain is using the king and the country to recruit soldiers. “Doing Duty from here-are you doing yours?” This slogan is around a picture of the king and the country. It is an attempt to encourage men to enroll in the army. If you enrolled in the army, this act expressed your ‘manhood’ and patriotism for your country, but if you do not enroll you were called a ‘white feather’ and this shows your cowardice and your unpatriotic acts. The use of the king in this poster acts as if he is disappointed if you do not enlist. Throughout World War 1 propaganda is used to instill manhood and patriotism in the people who do enlist, and cowardice in those who chose not to.



The second poster is an example of propaganda. It is used to recruit new soldiers for the war claiming that more soldiers means peace quicker. This type of propaganda was used greatly during the period of World War One. The six flags on the top represent the six nations that have an alliance with each other. This specific image is from a London Recruiting Depot. Also the crown on top represents the Royalty of England and that you should not and may not disappoint them. Similar to the previous image, if you enroll you show your manhood and patriotism towards your country. But if you chose not to enroll you are considered a coward and are treated with little respect. The saying on the poster, “Each Recruit means Quicker Peace Join To-Day,” means that with more manhood and patriotism the war will be won and finished quicker.

Throughout World War 1, women were used as nurses, factory workers, and some even as soldiers. In this image, the women are working in a factory. When their husbands left, the women took over the household. They did everything to help their children and took over the man’s responsibility. The women even took control of the men’s jobs. For example, most women started working in factories. Although many women stayed at home, some females wanted to get involved in the war. Women were commonly used as nurses for the soldiers and sometimes brought food for the men. Although in battle women were not encouraged to fight, in some cases they pretended to be men to become soldiers. One woman, Flora Sandes, enlisted as a Serbian soldier and actually became a very prominent soldier. She finished her military career as a captain and as one of the highest ranked soldier. Women were greatly underappreciated in World War One, but they did play a very important role.


Each image relates to the novel, All Quiet on the Western Front, in many different ways. The first image represents manhood and patriotism. Both of these qualities were significantly appreciated in the novel. The main character, Paul, and his fellow students were greatly encouraged to enlist in the army by their schoolmaster, Mr. Kantorek. He always said that being in the military shows your patriotism and manhood. Mr. Kantorek tries to recruit his students, which eventually works. Women are also in this novel; they are described as sensitive people, and are mostly viewed from the mother’s point of view. All Quiet on the Western Front is a novel that shows the impact war has on women and men. During this period, men were expected to serve their country and be both manly and patriotic. But if they did not enlist they were considered cowards and useless. Women were used as nurses and aids to the soldier. These images all relate to the book, All Quiet on the Western Front, in the position of women and men during World War One.

This poster of “Line up, boys! Enlist To-Day,” expresses a certain manhood that is involved with enlisting with an army. This was made in Great Britain. Though, it was not for a specific type of particular, it was to show the general vibe of enlisting in Great Britain’s armed forces. This poster reveals a central theme of nationalism among the British in the war. The propaganda of this is to appeal to young men that have not enlisted in the war or to grab the attention of minors who will soon be able to fight for their country. The poster is simple, but it brings about a large point. To win the war, you need men on the battlefield, and the more men present will increase the chances of a victory. There is plenty of appeal and incentive to get a soldier to join the war effort in the creativity and nationalistic ideals of the poster. They men seem to be friends as they walk in unison. It reveals to its audience that the men can be well connected and are able to find joy in the war. The smiles illustrate that the war is not necessarily all bad and there can be fun as well as dignity involved. These men show a great deal of pride and nationalism in their country, and they poster makes it seem like ‘they need you’ to ‘spend their time with’. The boys are in traditional British clothing, and it gives a sense that anyone can get a sense of this nationalism if they enlist.

Throughout World War I, there was a constant need to replenish a unit of troops with new recruits, and the simplicity of this poster is trying to express that fact. The poster uses “to-day” merely because they need the new soldiers as soon as possible to continue the strength of the war effort. “Line up, boys! Enlist To-Day,” in a sense relates to what the boys from All Quiet on the Western Front have experienced before they were recruited. Certainly Germany would display posters similar to this around the majority of the country. After what Mr. Kantorek, the boys’ school teacher, had told them about enlisting, the boys surely took a second look at poster that were meant for them. They realized they needed to be a part of their countries nationalism, and they enlisted to serve their country. Kantorek’s patriotic speeches to the boys relates to the poster in that they both attempt and eventually succeed in appealing to the young men to join the war effort. In addition the boys walking in unison relates to the manhood that is expresses among Paul and his comrades during the war. They stick by each other in most cases, but more importantly they seem look out for each other in the poster as well Paul and the new recruits in the real war.

This poster of “Are You Answering the Call,” displays different forms of nationalism, manhood, and even cowardice. The easiest topic to see and comprehend is the concept of nationalism. The writing is almost self-explanatory grabbing the attention of the reader and making it clear what is needed. Great Britain is portrayed as the mother country and the most dominate among its territories and other countries. Though the poster is shown that it needs more support from the territories they control. These territories include Canada, India, New Zealand, South Africa, and Australia. Great Britain is shown as the greatest of these places because of the massive amount of nationalism it obtains. The adult lion represents Great Britain in this way. They are shown as a hero. The younger and less strong lions represent the other territories because they are not fulfilling their full civic duties in helping the war effort. The poster is a recruiting mission to win over the support over the typical man to join the war effort. These show patriotism of each country. This poster demonstrates a need for certain responsibilities that each citizen owns in a sense to his or her country. “Are You Answering the Call,” portrays the fact that everyone is needed for a country to be successful in war. It is a recruiting mission in which everyone is asked and obligated to participate to the best of their ability. The men have to represent the manhood of the country by fighting in the war. Though, the men have to not demonstrate cowardice in the war. It is essential that they not let their emotions affect them in battle. In addition men need to enter the war. For no reason they should be staying at home if they are ‘able bodied’ and physically able to fight. The woman play a role in this as well in that they need to provide for the country as nurses, factory workers, secretaries, and even to take over some of the men’s jobs while they are away at war.

This recruiting mission poster of “Are You Answering the Call,” portrays in a way what the young men in All Quiet in the Western Front have experienced. They have all enlisted to understand and partake in the nationalism and patriotism of Germany at this time. They joined the army to “answer the call’ that their country needed at this time. Though despite the fact that Paul and some of the other men in the novel regret enlisting, they show no cowardice and are displaying their manhood to their full potential. The boys at first enlisted to benefit their country in order to win the war. They expressed their manhood in fighting at the front lines and for some surviving the dreaded horrors of World War I.

Throughout World War I, there was a call for new recruits. Posters, music, and even poetry were used as propaganda to encourage the people to enlist in the army. In these forms of propaganda, they often expressed nationalism, patriotism, manhood, cowardice, and even the strength of women in their civic responsibilities. War combatants and helpful women were considered patriots for their mother country. Nationalism, patriotism, manhood, cowardice, and womanhood expressed in the war, are also conveyed in the novel, All Quiet on the Western Front. This story shows the recruiting system of this period and also the respect for war combatants. Each type and piece of propaganda expressed the qualities needed for new combatants.

-Connor Waite & Clay Haarmann
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All Quiet on the Western Front

Terror and the Revolution

Ryan Poehner
Pat Ferguson
Ben Reynolds

Two simple words can best describe the events of the revolution, in terms of warfare, terror and resistance. A few factors, common to society, provoked the famous period known as the revolution, “its ongoing foreign and civil war, multilayered internal political strife, constitutional paralysis, economic hardships, religious conflict, and the innovative nature of revolutionary language.”[1] Though these are all common themes that occurred throughout history, the culmination of all of them seemed to stress the French peasants more so than any other group in history. The events that followed these issues though, were quite unique and still remain unique to that single period of time in French history.

The chaos and disorder brought about by the revolution presented a difficult task for the revolutionary leaders with respects towards maintaining organization in the country. The twelve-member committee placed in charge of maintaining order within the country was the Committee of Public Safety or the CPS. The revolutionaries presented a new Constitution whose aim was to produce a new democracy and economic equality, however, the CPS argued that they couldn’t obtain control over the control whilst they were confined by the laws of a constitution. Instead of a democracy, the CPS opted to control with a form of government known as “the terror”. The terror allowed the CPS to use power to maintain control. Those who opposed the actions of the CPS were charged with treason as counterrevolutionaries and sentenced to death in the guillotine. The counterrevolutionaries were the main focus of the Terror government. There were many confrontations during this time, such as between the Republican forces and the peasants in Vendee. The terror proved to be a very effective form of government to maintain control after the revolution; however, people like Georges Danton began to speak out, saying the violence had been over enforced. The CPS eventually began to lose control with their Terror government as the people of the revolution began to realize that the idea of revolution that they had fought for wasn’t properly manifesting itself in the Terror government. This picture entitled “French Democrats surprising the Royal Runaways” depicts an assault by the Revolutionaries on a family of the prior nobility. During the “Reign of Terror” the revolutionaries fought to get rid of all possible revolutionaries, even if they were only loosely connected to the previous nobility.


Second, the emergence of revolution focused the lens of terror upon those of the counterrevolution. Main counter revolutionists such as the Queen of France, Marie-Antoinette, saw the constricting terrors. The CPS viewed the queen as a popular monarchial figure who other foreign powers could assemble behind. Because of her supreme power revolutionists tried and executed Antoinette in order to enforce terror upon higher society. Also, this can be seen in the depiction of noble executions. Journee du Janvier’s The Execution of Louis XVI(displayed right), shows the epitome of terror used by revolution artists. The Specific purpose of this art was designed to terrorize the noble elite. If such terrible things could be done to a ruling king, nothing prevented the same troubles from befalling onto counter revolutionist nobles. These actions terrorized the other members of the ruling elite thus solidifying revolutionary views within the elite of society. These moves by the CPS instigated an emergence of extremist radicals that attacked on the political front. There were vicious verbal attacks made upon the peasants who were attempting to secularize society. Also, France saw the rising importance of education and a decrease in Christianity. The foundations of which were rooted in the Enlightenment. Since the revolution was on the tail ends of the Enlightenment, many of its themes and trends extended into the late eighteen hundreds. These trends included the rising importance of education among people in order to promote the glory of French society. On the other hand, because of the Enlightenments trend of reason, the people of France made specific moves to de-Christianize society and politics.

France was barely a nation at the end of the conflicts known as the revolution. The bloodshed finally led to the insertion of a basic authority, which ultimately resulted in the new constitution in the year 1795. The horrible actions of the French peasants seemed fruitless though, as the constitution focused on protecting the rights of nobles rather than the rights of the majority of the population. The extreme actions of the peasants brought more shame than good, as is said, “The experience of the Terror had altered definitively outsiders' views of France, driving it from sympathy in 1789 to hostility and derision by 1795.”[2] Though a new constitution was in place, power still fluctuated and led to further unrest. At the close of the revolution, the Directory, which was made up of five rotating directors, came to power with the help of Napoleon’s military. This form of government was short lived though because a delegate, Sieyes, saw the nation moving towards anarchy and suggested a reorganization of the government. The power of government shifted to a three man consulate consisting of Seiyes, Bonaparte, and Ducos and the nation was in a state of an undetermined governmental authority; it was not a democracy, yet not a liberal government. Napolean Bonaparte, after accepting his position in the consulate just a few months earlier, took over France and crowned himself the emperor. The Revolution was now over and France was basically back to state which the Revolution began in; a monarchial nation favoring the nobility.

The Revolution started off with revolt from the peasants because of oppression and monarchial power, and it ended with the installment of a new monarchial power and oppression once again. As power fluctuated and peasant revolts continued, France remained in a state of governmental disarray and confusion. Four different forms of government were installed and fell within the short span of the Revolution and the peasants found themselves back at square one, with a monarch once again.
[1] War, Terror, and Resistance (pg 1)
[2] War, Terror, and Resistance (pg 5)

The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon

Near the end of the 18th century, the French government fell under new control. A new government known as “the Directory” came to power in the executive branch. The directory directed a war effort, which brought power to Napoleon Bonaparte, who saw the fall of the French republic. He would eventually become the supreme ruler of France and one of the greatest military leaders in history. Napoleon’s influences lead to a new type of government, The French Consulate, in which Napoleon became the first consul. However, his coming to power was assisted by the Revolution in Colonies, lead by Toussaint L’Ouverture. Napoleon rose to power and initiated the downfall of the French republic and replaced it with The French Consulate, which began Napoleons reign over France. His rise to power began with the Directory.

In the late 18th century, the republic endured in France under a new government known as the Directory. This executive branch kept power only by fending off challenges from the remaining royalists in Paris.[1] This period of regime constituted the second to last stage of the French Revolution. Meanwhile, it directed a war effort that would ultimately bring to power Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the most influential figures in European history. Napoleon scored major victories with a modernized French army and drew his tactics from different sources. His campaigns were studied and respected all over the world, and thus was regarded as one of history's great commanders. Napoleon centralized state power more effectively than kings of revolutionaries before him.[2] He also worked hard to establish his reputation as an efficient administrator with broad intellectual interests. Furthermore, Napoleon aimed to modernize French society through science and brute force.[3] This use of aggressiveness is shown with Napoleon’s prominent invasion of Poland and Germany. He not only assumed control of Polish lands, but in assimilating Polish youth and making them unaware of their rich heritage, destroyed Polish nationalism. Thus Napoleon raised “The Polish Question” among the Poles. Apart from this, the French Revolution also impacted Napoleon’s rise to power.
France was a country that depended heavily on the well-being of its colonies. The country’s success was due in part to the amount of slave laborers that worked their fields/.However, the course of the revolution brought about repercussions in France’s Caribbean colonies, which had a direct correlation to France’s economy. Some French citizens attempted to abolish such use of slaves with the organization of a club known as the Friends of Blacks. Unfortunately, the majority of French Revolutionaries did not view the issue as a problem. To their surprise, slaves in St. Dominique led an uprising which caused the Legislative assembly in Paris to resort to unpr
ecedented actions.[4] They granted free people of color civil and political rights. As a result enraged white planters and merchants joined sides with France’s enemy, Great Britain. Additionally, Great Britain’s ally, Spain, offered freedom to a select group of slave rebels. The French commissioner, now in a dire situation, freed all slaves as a means of recruiting more men into the French army. This hasty act caused the overall abolishment of slavery in the French colonies. To France’s advantage one of their ablest black generals, Francois-Dominique Touissant L’Ouverture allied with and changed the sides of his Spanish troops to the French. Touissant was honored and awarded as he was appointed governor of St. Dominique. Touissant was able to remain in charge until, Napoleon’s arrival in 1802. Although, he was arrested and died in prison, Touissant was revered as a hero to abolitionist everywhere.

The Directory regime faced a deeply divided populace at home while continuing to fight abroad. Constant elections meant constant upheaval. It never succeeded in establishing a farm center that could appeal to a majority of voters. All over France, people banded together and petitioned to reopen churches closed during the Terror.[5] Amid increasing political instability, generals in the field became independent, and the troops felt greater loyalty to their units and generals than to the republic. On November 9, 1799, the conspirators within the Directory government persuaded the legislature to move out of Paris to avoid revolt. When Bonaparte demanded changes in the Constitution, he was denied by cries of “Down with the dictator.” The soldiers ejected the deputies, and assembled a legislature voted to abolish the Directory and establish a new three-man executive called the consultate. The deputies picked Bonaparte as one of the three provisional consuls because he was such a famous general. Under the new Constitution of 1799 he was named First Consul, a title revived from ancient Roman republic, with the right to pick the Council of State, which drew up all laws. Bonaparte and his advisers chose the legislature’s members out of a small pool of “notables.”[6] Within a year, Bonaparte had effectively ended the French Revolution and set France on a new course toward a new, independent state.

Napoleon’s rise to power brought many changes to France. A new government was formed, known as the Directory, which controlled the executive branch. This lead to other reforms in the French government, for Napoleon incorporated a new form of power that ended the Republic. Napoleon established French Consulate, in which he became the First Consul. However, he was only able to ascend his power due to multiple revolutions against the previous government. Napoleon created a new French establishment that helped France become one of the most powerful countries in Europe.

Questions...

1. What helped Napoleon come into power?

2. What was the significance of the Polish Question?

3. What factors contributed to the fall of the Republic?

Noah Joachim, Oladeji Odewade, Will Huff

[1] Packet
[2] "Napoleon Bonaparte." Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. 09 Feb. 2009 .
[3] Packet
[4] "Napoleon Bonaparte." Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. 09 Feb. 2009 .

[5] "Napoleon Bonaparte." NEW ADVENT: Home. 09 Feb. 2009 .
[6] "Napoleon Bonaparte." NEW ADVENT: Home. 09 Feb. 2009 .